Six Sigmas Concept Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Six Sigmas Concept - Research Paper Example 27). The paper argues that Six Sigma is all these but not limited to the above-mentioned elements. Concisely put, Six Sigma is a business process that allows the companies to design their operations in such a way that helps in improving their bottom line profitability by decreasing the waste, increasing the quality. Six Sigma is the business philosophy that urges companies to create mechanisms, which to do fewer mistakes in everything that they do, from writing a checkbook to designing a aircraft, from sweeping the floor to refining petroleum (Carreira & Trudell, pp. 98-99). Despite the fact that Six Sigma could be placed in the life of quality management programs but it also has some striking differences from other quality management programs. First, when other quality programs focus on finding, detecting and understanding the defects to fix them in the early stages of production, Six Sigma urges specifically to create mechanism, systems, and operations, which are defect free (Pande & Holpp, pp. 14-15). Six Sigma believes that products which show defects during production are more likely to do the same when used by the customers; therefore, the focus should be recreating these processes in such a way that defects do not arise in the first place. Second, the way Six Sigma defines quality is much different from other quality programs. During the 1980s, when the prevalent definition of quality was about conformance to certain standards regardless of how these standards were being met. Under the umbrella of Six Sigma, quality is defined as â€Å"a state in which value entitlement is realized for the customer and provider in every aspect of the business relationship† (Summers, pp. 27). In the past, when companies focused solely to conform to standards and produce products according to customer requirements they always found themselves trapped. This was because the companies had little or no focus on the process itself. The company producing the product after finding several defects in it during production, and the company producing it defect free in the first attempt, both were standing in the same line because both had the same â€Å"quality† (Carreira & Trudell, pp. 98-99). Despite working hard on those products, profit margins of these companies remain stagnant or they even kept shrinking. They could not increase the price because of the competition but their costs were sky rocketing because of extensive reworking, reprocessing, warranties, inspection, lost sales, buffer inventory, return and allowances, testing costs, overtime, complaint handlings and others (Zinkgraf, pp. 38). Furthermore, Six Sigma is also a business strategy and management philosophy, which cannot be implemented in the absence of support from the top management and the front line employees. Unlike other quality programs, implementation of Six Sigma requires motivation and support from all employees of the day. It is about asking tough questions about the everyday operations in order to improve them (Carreira & Trudell, pp. 98-99). It is about asking tough questions and leaving comfort zone in order to become more effective in achieving the results. Moreover, Six Sigma believes

Health Attitudes Towards Chewing Tobacco Health And Social Care Essay

Health Attitudes Towards Chewing Tobacco Health And Social Care Essay Chewing tobacco is a form of oral smokeless tobacco. Smokeless tobacco is used to describe the tobacco that is used in un burnt form. Tobacco used for this purpose is prepared by harvesting the tobacco leaves when they turn yellow and brown spots start appearing on the leaves they are left in the fields for uniform drying.The aging time for leaves for making chewing tobacco is one to three years. They are then tied into bundles and moistened with water and molasses and are stored for fermentation for a couple of weeks .The bundles are then separated and dried again and leaves are cut into different sizes[1] Chewing tobacco can be used itself or as an ingredient to other products such as betel quid (paan)[12] The preparations are placed in the mouth, cheek or lip and are sucked or chewed.The most common preparation[2] of chewing tobacco used are Loose leaf It is commercially prepared. The product constituents are leaf tobacco, sweetener and liquorice Loose cigar leaves are air-cured and steamed. It is then cut into small strips of shredded tobacco. Licorice is added to give flavour Moist Plug It is made from enriched tobacco leaves collected from the plant, immersed in a mixture of liquorice and sugar and pressed into a plug. Twist Roll This type of tobacco is hand made. Air crued tobacco leaves are treated with a tar like tobacco leaf extract and are twisted into a rope like strands that are dried. Guthka It is dry commercial preparation containing areca nut, slaked lime, powdered tobacco, catechu and condiments. The same mixture without tobacco is called paan masala[1] .Both Guthka and paan masala are attractively packed and widely available. It is highly addictive and is used as a mouth or breath freshener[3](21) Most common brand names are Manichand,Tulsi and parag Betel Quid (Pann) Paan consists of betel quid leaf, areca nut, slaked lime and catechu. Flavouring agents such as mentol, champhor, sugar,rose water, aniseed, mint water and other spices are added according to individual and regional preference[2]. Chewing tobacco is also used as an ingredient in betel quid (paan)[4][12].However paan can also be used without tobacco. Tobacco is used as raw, sundried and roasted that is finely chopped into small pieces or powdered. To make the quid slaked lime and catechu are smeared on a betel leaf. The leaf is folded in a funnel shape and tobacco and other ingredients are added. The top is folded over resulting in a quid which is placed in the mouth. Zarda .It is prepared by cutting tobacco leaves into small pieces and boiling them in water with slake lime until water evaporates. It is then dried and coloured with the vegetable dyes. Spices and perfumes are added. Zarda can be chewed itself with areca nut or added as an ingredient in paan. Most common brands available are Baba, bharat, gopal, Betel quid Parag. Qiwam It is thick tobacco paste available in the form of granules and pellets To prepare Qiwam the tobacco leaves are soaked and boiled in water, flavoured with spices and additives and stirred well. I then strained and dried into a paste from which granules and pellets are made.It is either placed in the mouth and chewed or used in betel quid[1]. Although the use of oral smokeless tobacco product has been existed for thousand of years in South America and South East Asia, the products became popular in other parts of the world as well[2] [FS 00] The frequency of its use varies considerably not only across the countries but also within the countries according to sex, age, ethnic origin and socioeconomic status of the people[4][12].Oral smokeless tobacco use is widely prevalent in South East Asia. According to WHO figure in 2004,17% of the total population in Southeast Asia uses oral smokeless tobacco and 95% of these people belong to India and Bangladesh[1].[NML] Chewing tobacco is the most common form of oral smokeless tobacco used in South East Asia. It is used in a variety of forms; betel quid chewing (paan), leaf alone, leaf with lime and tobacco, and areca nut preparations. Historical evidence has indicated that the habit of paan chewing has been existed for 2000 years and is being used from year 437AD [1]. About 600million people are estimated to chew paan in Southeast Asia[5][18] and tobacco is an important constituent of paan especially for users in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan [1] The use of these products was dropped in Europe and North America but an opposite trend has been observed for the last few decades particularly among people under the age of 40 years. These products are used as an alternative option to cigarettes and other smoking products and are considered to be of negligible risk to health[6] [6]. Demographic context of South-Asian UK Community According to 2001 census number of South Asians in the UK were 2,010,541 that make up 4% of the total UK population. Indians were the largest figures 1,028,539 (1.8%) followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis with 706,752 (1.3%) and 275,250 (0.5%) respectively. 2004 estimate shows that number of British Asian community in the UK is 2,7999,700. Asians are present in most towns and cities of the UK. The largest concentration of Indians are in west London, Leicester and west Midlands Pakistanis are evenly distributed in the UK with greater concentration in Birmingham, Lancashire ,Yorkshire, Greater Manchester and greater London. Most of the Bangladeshis live in East London in Tower Hamlets where they make up 33% of the total borough population[7].[34] Recent tobacco control strategy Support for chewing tobacco users For many years the users of chewing tobacco in some areas of the UK have been treated by local stop smoking services on the grounds that individuals seeking help for tobacco use of any kind should be offered support within NHS. Since April 2009,there is no clarification that tobacco chewers can be included in the monitoring data for NHS Stop Smoking Services[8] 5 So there is little incentive for the services to treat tobacco chewers. However certain locally established services are working to help people quit. There is no rigorous search on different types of smokeless tobacco products used in UK[9](8) All this has resulted in raising the concerns that chewing tobacco has received little attention in the UK compared with cigarette smoking, the predominant form of nicotine use. As a result, there are concerns that tobacco chewers may be unaware of the health risk However in the latest DOH guidelines A smoke free future: a comprehensive tobacco control strategy for England the government has highlighted the harmful effects of smokeless tobacco and has stressed upon the implementation of certain regulations regarding its use in the UK. It has been considered to extend the legislation on pictorial health warnings to smokeless tobacco products and to label the products clearly. In addition it will be tried to ensure that the legislation on the labelling, display and sale are enforced. Work will be done to get a clear picture of the current market. UK Government will continue to support the current European prohibition on the sale of snus. Regarding support and advice for the current users of smokeless tobacco government will work with NCSCT to develop and implement cessation packages and care pathways. Efforts will be made for these pathways to be embedded in the community and to become sustainable. Additional support will be provided by communication strategies to the users of chewing tobacco and health and social care professionals and workers to highlight the health risks associated with the use of such products and support and methods available to stop them[10]. Literature search The literature search was conducted using the online databases given in table 1 Data base Description EMBASE It is a major biomedical data base that covers a wide range of articles on clinical and experimental human medicine ,health policy management and public health Medline Medline is good source of biomedical and clinical medical literature. Cochrane For the systematic reviews of the studies. Boolean operators (AND, OR) were used and search was conducted in three different categories using the key words given in table Chewing tobacco Health effects Attitudes UK Smokeless tobacco Harmful effects Behaviour England Hazards Knowledge Great Britain Dangers manners The searches were limited by: English language documents only No study from date before 1990 was included The initial searches on Medline and EMBASE produced 1209 papers on chewing tobacco OR smokeless tobacco The search was then restricted to focus on chewing tobacco only and found 245 articles. The review was highly specific regarding the use of chewing tobacco in UK,so all the studies conducted outside the UK were excluded and the number was reduced to 16 only. Searching for the harmful effects of chewing tobacco OR smokeless on different database revealed 72 papers from all over the world. Nearly half of these papers had no description of chewing tobacco and were excluded. Search for the attitudes towards the use of chewing tobacco was very limited and produced only 6 papers globally. Limiting the search further in UK found nothing on this topic. The studies found were reviewed for the relevant information under the following headings The use of chewing tobacco in the UK Health effects Attitudes Use of chewing tobacco in the UK Research has suggested the widespread use of areca nut mixed with smokeless tobacco amongst Asian ethnic communities residing the western world[11].[4] Of the 2.4 million South Asians in the UK,27-98% are users of smokeless tobacco depending on the community and sex[12][35]while chewing tobacco is the most common form of smokeless tobacco used in the UK[13].[1] Studies in the UK have found a high prevalence of betel quid (paan) chewing in South Asian communities among both sexes in all age groups and increasing incidence with the age [14,15,16,17,18] [40,41,42,43,44] The habit of paan chewing varies between 66% to 95% within Bangladeshi UK communities whilst in Indian and Pakistani it is 15% and 75% respectively[13] [1].Bangladeshi women are distinct from other minority ethnic groups in their tobacco use as most of it is derived from chewing tobacco (16%) rather than cigarette smoking (2%)[19][36]. However the reporting of chewing paan with and without tobacco varies among Bangladeshi women living in Britain [20][38]It has been found that out of 75-90% of Bangladeshi women chewing paan, 50-80% use tobacco in their paan[21][37] The first large study conducted in Birmingham to investigate the use of betel quid and tobacco chewing among Bangladeshi community in the UK found that 92% of male and 96% of female chewed betel quid on daily basis an d the percentage of male and female users of betel quid and chewing tobacco increases with the age[16].[42]. Furthermore It has been found from the studies that in Bangladeshi community the number of the women chewing tobacco with betel quid is higher than men and 37% of male were reported to chew betel quid with tobacco whilst 81% of women did so[16][42]. In another study in west Yorkshire 95% of women were chewing paan of which 89% reported to add tobacco[15].[41] Similarly Health education authority (HEA)survey for health and lifestyle in ethnic minority 2004 has found that the prevalence of chewing paan in 50-74 years age group was 76% for women and 62% for men of which the frequency of adding tobacco was 58% and 31% respectively[17].[43] Same results were revealed in Tower Hamlet in 1999 where 86% of women and 71% of men chewed betel quid, and the frequency of adding tobacco was 64% for women and 42% for men[18] [44]. On the other hand in two other studies conducted in Tower Hamlet, London and inner city of London the prevalence of chewing tobacco among Bangladeshi women was low;48.5% and 43% respectively[20,22].[39,38] The actual prevalence is thought to be higher as the reasons demonstrated for this low prevalence is cross-sectional study design that provides only a snapshot of the current picture and is unable to describe the actual behaviour. Other possible reasons include the study sampling and questionnaire wording. It has been later on found that the tobacco use in chewing paan is under reported by Bangladeshi women. In another study nearly half of the women in the sample undisclosed their personal tobacco use [23]1. Likewise in another study of betel quid use among first and second generation of women in London, the prevalence ranged between 25% to 33% and 49% of these women were reported to add tobacco. The possible explanation given for this low finding is the smaller sample size and the age range selected for this study was narrow (18-39)years. It did not include the age group over 45 years where the prevalence of betel quid use is highest[11] [23] The habit of the paan chewing is found to be started in this community before the age of 15 years[16,18][44,42] and some times it is acquired at a very early age ( as early as 5years) but mostly in early teen age between 11 and 15 years[24,11][4,5] Another research in East London has also found a high level of regular paan use, both tobacco containing and tobacco free, among the young Bangladeshi adolescents of 12-14 years of age. Most considerable fact is that only a third of these young people knew the association between tobacco containing paan and oral cancer[25](11) The different types of chewing tobacco used in the UK are similar to those used in Southern Asia and include;Guthka,zarda,dried whole and chopped tobacco leaves and tooth cleaning powders(abrasive powdered tobacco with aromatic ingredients)[13][1]These products are available in the market with different branded names. Such as for Guthka it is Manikchard and Tulsi mix. Zarda is available as Hakim pury,DulalMisti and Baba Zard gulabi Pati.The name given to teeth cleaning powder is Quardir Gull. Some of these products are used in conjunction with paan. All these chewing tobacco products used have at least a detectable level of some of the carcinogens. One type of zarda product Hakim Pury is of special concern as it is found to have high levels (29.7 µg/g) of carcinogens, nitrosamine (TSNA) and is putting the life of the users at risk[13][1]. Different level of toxins and nicotine content has also been found in Guthka and tooth cleaning powder.. It has been found that gutka and paan are commonly sold in the UK without health warnings.The UK Children and Young Persons ( protection from tobacco) Act1991[26][48] states that it is an offence to sell the tobacco products to people under the age of 18 years and tobacco containing gutka and paan fall in this category. If legislations are not enforced .there is a risk that this problem would not remain confined to South Asian community but also spread to other ethnic groups[25].11 Effects of the treatment One pilot study conducted in London in UK has described the effect of NRT patch along with brief advice and encouragement on the reduction in the use of chewing tobacco in South Asian community. The report of this study suggested that NRT helped volunteers to give up chewing tobacco use in moderately dependent users of chewing tobacco whilst advise only was helpful for those with low dependency. There was a great reduction in the salivary cotinine level in the group of volunteers treated with NRT patches[27] (24) According to a report 67% of the Bangladeshi women have declared a desire to quit the use chewing tobacco products[8].5 Harmful effects The habit of chewing tobacco is associated with a number of risk factors some of which are fatal whilst the others are injurious to heath. Cancers Oral cancer is a common malignancy among people who smoke and chew tobacco and is the 11th most common cancer that makes up 3 to 4% of all cancers, worldwide. 300,000 new cases of oral cancer occur and is responsible for 200,000 deaths, each year, globally[28,29]. (29,33) There is a significant difference in the prevalence of oral cancer among different ethnic groups and is found to be related to their cultural habit such as chewing of tobacco, areca nut and betel quid[30].[7] It is the most common form of cancer in India and South Asian countries and account for 40% of total malignancies with high frequency in Bangladesh, India and Srilanka[31].[45] A number of studies conducted in Asia Pacific have shown an increased risk of oral cancer among betel quid (paan)chewers. The presence of tobacco in betel quid further increases the risk[30].[7] The first cohort study to examine the risk of oral cancer in women chewing tobacco was conducted in a rural costal area in Kollam district of Kerala over a period of 15 years from 1990 to 2005.The results revealed a strong association between daily usage of chewing tobacco and the incidence of oral cancer in women and the risk was 9.2 folds higher among women who chew 10 times or more in a day. The risk also increased with the duration of chewing in the first 20 years[28].(29) The incidence of oro-pharyngeal cancer is highest in India and is strongly related with the use of chewing tobacco[32][3,] A study in Bhopal has found an increase risk of oro-pharyngeal cancer whilst the risk of oral cavity cancer was increased up to six fold with tobacco quid chewing. The risk was found to be 66.1% for tobacco chewers for the development of oral cavity cancer[33][10] Another most recent review of the studies on the head and neck cancer has tried to explore the associated risk factors. The carcinoma of the oral cavity; oropharynx, larynx and hypopharynx was the focus of the studies. It has been found that the incidence of head and neck cancer is increasing in women chewing tobacco which is considered as a newly recognised risk factor of great concern[34](28) Chewing tobacco has been found as an independent factor associated with an increased risk of hypo-pharyngeal cancer in a clear dose response relationship[29](33) The wide spread habit of chewing tobacco among South Asian community in the UK has raised concerns in public health authorities because of its harmful effects. There is a potential risk of oral and pharyngeal cancer among Asian immigrants living in the UK[33][10] A systematic review of the studies conducted in Europe and North America has shown a consistency of their results in finding the association of chewing tobacco and oro-pharyngeal cancer thus suggesting the strength of this association[35][55] .Between 1998 to 2000, an average of 5,010 new cases of oral cancer were detected per year in the UK. In the year 2000, 2,073 new cases occurred. The mortality rate due to this disease is 40% which is higher than due to cervical and breast cancer. It is possible to prevent the mouth cancer by avoiding the risk factors and early detection as the Awareness about the early signs and symptoms of mouth cancer is very low in high risk patients in the UK population although it has not been found to be low about knowing chewing tobacco as a cause of oral cancer[36].(25) Betel quid causes oesophageal cancer even without adding tobacco[5](18) and the addition of tobacco enhances it effect[30][7]. Cancer of the oesophagus was higher in men in Assam who had been using fermented betel nut combined with any type of tobacco[37](19).These findings are supported by a systematic review that explored the association of chewing tobacco not only with the oral and oesophageal cancer and also with the squamous cell carcinoma of the lip, buccal cavity, tongue and floor of the mouth[38].[20] In a cross-sectional analysis in England and Wales it has been found that the mortality rate from hepatocellular carcinoma and liver cirrhosis is high among men from South Asian community which cannot be explained by their patterns of alcohol consumption but might partly be attributed to the direct effect of paan chewing with or without tobacco[39](16) Similarly another case control study conducted in Taiwan has found a modest but independent dose dependent relationship between the habit of chewing tobacco and liver cancer. Furthermore it has been found that the paan chewers infected with hepatitis B and C are at an increased risk of liver failure as compared to non chewers infected with the virus alone[40].(17). The overall survival rate after the treatment of squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue at five and 10 years was 60% in people who did not chew tobacco whilst it declined to 40% in those who did so. Similarly relapse-free survival rate at 5 and 10 years was also higher for non chewers (63%) compared to those who chewed (42%) and was associated with high risk of loco-regional failure [41][13] Tobacco smoking /chewing causes oxidative stress that is defined as a sustained pressure of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in tissues.ROS are involved in the initiation of cellular free radical reaction and thus causing damage to protein, lipid, carbohydrate and DNA. If DNA damage is minor it can cause mutagenesis whilst severe damage will result in modifying the cell cycle[30][7] A number of studies have been conducted to estimate the risk of pancreatic cancer associated with chewing tobacco and revealed conflicting results. In 2008, a report from European Community Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly identified Health Risks (SCENIHR) on the health effects of smokeless tobacco[42] [56] has stated that All STP [Smokeless Tobacco products] contain nicotine, a potent addictive substance. They also contain carcinogenic tobacco-specific nitrosamines of differing levels. STP are carcinogenic to humans and the pancreas has been identified as a main target organ. Similar findings were reported in 2007 by International Agency of Research on Cancer (IARC) concluding there is sufficient evidence in humans for the carcinogenicity of smokeless tobacco. Smokeless tobacco causes cancer of the oral cavity and pancreas.[43][57] In contrast a systematic review in 2008[44][27] has demonstrated conflicting results with no effect of smokeless tobacco (ST) on risk of pancreatic cancer. However it has highlighted the limitation and weakness of the available data and has suggested for more evidence to determine the true relation. The number of exposed cases as compared to controls was small in the studies included for the review and there was a limited control for confounders as diet was not taken into account during analysis of risk from ST. The reliability of the base line exposure data was also doubtful in some of the cohort studies conducted over a period of 15 years as it has been suggested that there is considerable change in the use of smokeless tobacco over the long follow up period[44].[27]. Although the relationship of chewing tobacco with different types of cancers has been revealed in different studies but the interpretation of meta analysis of these studies is difficult as there a number of shortcomings associated with them. The studies are of variable size, quality and design are not able to provide sufficient information. Other draw backs include; small number of cases exposed to chewing tobacco lack of histological confirmation, unclear description of inclusioin and excliusion criteria,no details of selection of cases. Furthermore some studies have not mentioned about the type of ST used, its frequency and duration of use. Chewing tobacco products vary by country and overtime and older studies show an increased risk which may be not be the same for modern studies because of less nitrosamine level in modern products. Pre neoplastic disorders Oral submucous fibrosis is a chronic premalignant condition that occurs due to chewing of tobacco and areca nut and has a greater tendency to progress to cancer [5][18] There is a sufficient evidence that areca nut causes progressive sub-mucosal fibrosis and tobacco increases its addictiveness and carcinogenicity[3].(21)The fibrosis can involve the hard palate, tonsillar fosaa, buccal mucosa and underlying muscles. In some areas of the India the incidence of submucous fibrosis is as high as 35 per 100,000 men and 29 per 100,000 women[45,32].[3,22] In a study carried out in the UK to explore the relation between oral lesion and betal quid (paan) chewing among Bangladeshi women over the age of 40 years, revealed the presence of oral mucosal lesion in 40% of the participant and the leukoplakia was the most common disease with 25% prevalence [46].6 Similarly in another study conducted, in Papua New Guinea to find the relation between oral leukoplakia and bà ªtel quid chewing without tobacco, it was revealed that the current chewers and heavier chewers had a prevalence of oral leukoplakia of 3.8% and 4.1% respectively[47].[8] Circulatory diseases A systematic review of the studies conducted in United states and Sweden has found an association between smokeless tobacco products and the risk of fatal myocardial infarction and stroke and is explained to be without any chance.[48][6] Betel nut has been found also to aggravate the cardiovascular diseases[11] 7 Betel quid chewing is thought to be associated with asthma as well. The findings suggest that arecoline, a major constituent of betel nut, is absorbed through the buccal mucosa and exerts its broncho- constrictive properties from the circulation[49] (14) Non neoplastic diseases Evidence from a systematic review of nine studies from Europe and USA has suggested a relationship of the risk of non-neoplastic oral diseases; dental caries and tooth loss with chewing tobacco[50]. [11] In all the studies included chewing tobacco was significantly associated with decayed permanent tooth and decayed root surface even after adjusting for the confounders such as age, race, ethnicity, education and past-year dental visits. The risk was further increased with an increase in the number of packets used each day [50][11].Tobacco chewing also causes gum recession and loss of dental attachment which leads to dentine sensitivity and pain. Nicotine in chewing tobacco is documented to have analgesic properties and helps to overcome the pain resulting due to this dental sensitivity and as a consequence of other dental diseases. This explains the reason for experiencing oral pain by the people who want to quit and is found to be a barrier to their quit attempts.[27].(24) Disabilities Chewing of tobacco or areca nut is associated with certain disabilities and a new name has been proposed for these .prevalent disorders; Gutka syndrome or Areca Nut Chewers syndrome[3][21] Gutka syndrome is a combination of disabilities related with the chewing of areca nut and betel nut with or without smokeless tobacco It is predominant in people chewing for several years .The features of this syndrome include different degrees of fibrosis in the sub mucosal layer of the mouth and in the muscles of mastication that leads to trismus. The mucosa is white and lacks suppleness It becomes extremely temperature sensitive and is easily bruised [3].[21] Foetal disorders After nicotine, alcohol and caffeine betel nut is the fourth highly used addictive substance. Another recent study has investigated the impact of betel nut chewing habit on pregnancy. The prevalence of low birth weight was found to be 18% in chewing mothers and it was statistically significant The reduction in the birth weight was up to 467g[51](30) Among other factors, chewing tobacco is also found to be associated with the carcinoma of gallbladder[52].(31) Similarly a study was conducted in southern India to evaluate the level of micronuclei (MN) in the buccal mucosa of the individuals chewing tobacco, betel quid and areca nut. It was revealed that there was not much difference in the level of MN in individuals, chewing tobacco with smoking and those who where only chewing tobacco, being 1.09+/- 1.03 and 2.00+/- 1.12 respectively[53].(32) ] Attitudes The use of betel nut in South-Asian communities is regarded as a part of their cultural identity and is further enhanced by their perception of it as a valued tradition[11][4] In South Asian culture betel nut chewing is perceived beneficial and socially acceptable and is not believed to be associated with cancer and other related diseases. There is a stigma associated with women who smoke whilst there is no such stigma with using smokeless tobacco[20][15] Pressure from the family and friends is another factor stated by the women chewing tobacco. Older generation who do not believe in the health risks of betel nut chewing encourage the adolescent women to adopt this habit. In addition, the pregnant women adopt this habit to lessen their morning sickness in early pregnancy and later on maintain it to aid digestion due to its well being effect[11].[4] Paan is believed to have medicinal qualities and is thought to be effective in relieving headache and stomach ache . It is believed to freshen the breath and strengthen the gum[11][23]. One study conducted in Pakistan where chewing tobacco is the most common form of smokeless tobacco used has tried to study the attitudes and practice of smokeless tobacco users. The study revealed that 67% of the users were using it for physical and mental relaxation,59% reported the use by other family members as well. Reasons reported for its start were for relaxing and concentrating in work 67% and 39% respectively).media advertisement was another source of inspiration reported by 40% of users. 31% found it to be due to the peer pressure from friends and /colleagues. More than 40% of the respondants , mainly uneducated women, reported it to be a cheap and useful remedy to deal with common health problems[54].(26) Attitudes of the women chewing tobacco have been explored in another study conducted in Papua New Guinea PNG. Women reported its use; to prevent smelly mouth (43%), it is in my custom (28%),I am addicted to it (9%), to able to work more when I am tired (8%). 28% of the women reported the use of chewing tobacco during pregnancy to reduce the morning sicknees and nausea. And 12% reported other reasons such as after meal, to relax, to be with others or socialising and for its good taste[51].(30) In a study in the UK in Bangladeshi community,the main reason given for betel quid chewing was its use by everyone in the family and friends. There was a wide social acceptance of this habit by the community especially by female users. 5% of the respondents even think it acceptable for the children to chew tobacco[16].[42].It was confirmed in the study that habit of betel quid chewing starts during the teen age years and the addition of tobacco in the females starts before the engagement and marriage. The habit was so frequent that 80% of the adult female were found to be engeaged in this habit..Taking few health risks was socially accepted and those who do not chew were considered deviant by the community [16].[42] Further exploring the attitudes of the Bangladeshi population regarding their perception towards the harmful effects of chewing tobacco it was found that 49% of female and 38% of male were unaware of its harmful effects of chewing paan. 23% of the participants believed that it is good for over all dental health, keeps teeth strong and helps stop pain in the gums and teeth and. It is perceived to aid digestion and keep mouth fresh. 14% of the participants also admitted that they were add

Attribution of Intentionality and Theory of Mind in Pre-school and Scho

The ability of understanding intentions of others is very important for social development of children (Feinfield, Lee, Flavell, Green, & Flavell, 1999). By means of understanding intentions children can make sense of that people and animates are different from objects (Feinfield, et al., 1999). According to Shantz (1983), this ability is the requisite to understand morality and responsibility. To understand plans and planning we also need to have the ability of understanding intentions (Feinfield, et al., 1999). In addition, Feinfield and colleagues stated that acquiring the ability of understanding intentions of others is also important for the cognitive development of the children such as theory of mind (ToM) that is â€Å"the understanding that others have beliefs, intentions and desires different from one’s own† (Kelly, 2011; p. 5). For these stated reasons many researchers have conducted various studies about the ability of understanding intentions of others. Seve ral studies were carried out to determine when children begin to develop the ability of understanding intentions, which factors have an impact on this ability, how these factors influence the intention attribution and what the role of intention attribution plays for the associations between cognitive capacities and moral reasoning. One of the factors that are related to development of understanding intentions of others is theory of mind competence of the children (Kelly, 2011). Therefore, there are various researches that examined the development of understanding of intentions, its relations with ToM, direction of the relation and the role of the intention attribution as a sphere between ToM and moral judgment. In the present paper, the review of 9 studies that inves... ...ct Effect Theory of Mind and Moral Judgment. Psychological Science, 17(5), 421-427. Loureiro, Carolina Piazzarollo, & Souza, Debora de Hollanda. (2013). The Relationship between Theory of Mind and Moral Development in Preschool Children. Paidà ©ia (Ribeirà £o Preto), 23(54), 93-101. Phillips, W., Baron†Cohen, S., & Rutter, M. (1998). Understanding intention in normal development and in autism. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 16(3), 337-348. Shantz, (1983). Social cognition. In J. H. Flavell & E. M. Markman (Eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 3: Cognitive Development, 4th edition. (pp. 495– 555). New York: Wiley. Smetana, J. G., Jambon, M., Conry-Murray, C., & Sturge-Apple, M. L. (2012). Reciprocal associations between young children's developing moral judgments and theory of mind. Developmental psychology, 48(4), 1144.

First Accomplishment in My Life Essay

It is so difficult to live in the United States, the land of opportunity, without education and the English language. Without these two things, our lives seem like meaningless. My family is one of the victims of this problem. Two years ago, when I was a senior student in high school, I almost could not graduate from high school with diploma in hand because of failing the exit exam twice and my lack knowledge of English. At that time, I really wanted to give up and ended my education at that level, but the encouragement of my parents had helped me go through this challenge to succeed the first accomplishment in my life. The first challenge started out when my family immigrated to this country. Indeed, living in an unfamiliar place is not easy at all. Everything is totally different from my own country such as the weather, culture, food, communication, and education. My first educated place in America was Rancho Cordova High School which is located in Rancho Cordova county of California. Truthfully, when I first began to learn English with eleventh grade in High school, I was just like a deaf and mute person in the class. I didn’t understand what people were saying, and of course I could not speak English as well as people here. The second day of school, I carried the schedule around the school with innocent face and lost my direction to get into the classes. At that time, I even could not express my feeling by asking the only basic question such as â€Å"Would you please tell me how to get into this class.† In that moment, I recognized myself was an alien who came from another planet. My feeling was so down, and I felt so lonely in the world. One day, when I was sitting alone in the bench at school, a white girl with a pretty blond hair whose name is Sarah dropped by to say hi and wanted to make friend with me. She asked me whole bunch of questions, but I didn’t know how to response. After few minutes, she knew that I couldn’t speak English, and she just walked away. I almost cried out in the public, and I felt myself so stupid. Time by time, I began to be familiar to the new life and my studying at school. At that moment, the goal of graduating from high school was important than anything in the world. This is not only my dream and also a significant promise to my lovely parents, because I wanted them to be proud of their only daughter in the family. Besides that, I wanted to bring an honor to my family, take fully care and support sufficiently for the rest of their life with certain status in the community. A year later, the last year of high school, I should be very happy instead of the anxiety and sadness which were carried on my face. Unfortunately, something happened out of control; everything turned out bad to my goal. The other obstacle had come to me again, and I know that I had to deal with another challenge. In that year, class of 06, the educational law had changed in California. The government had required all the students to pass the California Exit Exam to graduate or we could not walk stage. I was so worried about this problem because I already failed it twice. I only had one more chance to take it in February. Actually, with two years of learning English, this test was really a struggle for me. I totally lost self-confidence at that time. I was so upset about the promise I made. I always asked myself â€Å"what can I do now?† When my parents received the news, they didn’t feel so disappointed about me. Furthermore, they encouraged me to work harder and try all my best to do the exam as good as I can. With their support, I completely got back self-confidence to struggle with the next challenge. The morning of the exam day, I got up as early as I could to prepare spiritedly for the test that will take four hours. When I walked into the kitchen, I could sniff out the smell of delicious sunshine up egg with bread, which is ever my favorite food for breakfast, that mom cooked in the early morning. When I was ready to leave the house, my parents gently said to me that â€Å"Loss is experience of success. Mom and dad always stay behind to support you. Don’t worry! My sweetie† I looked at her with tears in my eyes and said,† Mom, I won’t disappoint you.† After two months, the result of exam was coming on May 10. At that day, when I walked into the counselor’ office to receive the result, my hand was shaking, my heart was pounding so fast, and I entered into Mrs. Tiger’s office with extremely worried face. Meanwhile, she announce my result with smiling face that â€Å"Congratulation, you pass the exam with the score 361†. At that moment, I was so surprise, excited and happy. Rapidly, my tears kept falling, and I couldn’t even hold it. Finally, my dream had come true, and I told myself that I did it. Absolutely, I could have a graduated invitation for my parents. The graduation of my senior year was celebrated at the gorgeous park in Cal-Expo. Obviously, I was so nervous and excited on that big day. There is one scene always store in my mind which was my parents’ joyfulness during the whole night. On that big day, they gave me a really big bundle of red roses. For me, whatever presents which I had received are not valuable than their happiness. After I went through this difficult time, I recognized that it was only the threshold of my life. For an English learner like me, I know that there is more obstacles will happen in the life of college. Therefore, it helps me to prepare more strength and spirit to struggle to a lot of other challenges in college. Besides that, I also received the valuable lesson of two characters that a person need to have which are persevering and hard working are so important for us. These both characters will lead us to the way of success. Also, the most valuable lesson I had learned from this challenge that parents is extremely part of my life; my parents are ever significant people in my life because they are always by my side to support me whenever I overcome the challenge or difficult problem. Without them, there is no life at all for me.

Problem Based Learning

BASIC TEACHING & LEARNING COURSE (KAP CENTRAL ZONE/2013) 19 – 23 FEBRUARY 2013 ASSIGNMENT ONE (1) NAME| NUR AZIEMAH MOHD AZMAN| ID. STAFF| 302753| FACULTY| COMMUNICATION AND MEDIA STUDIES| CAMPUS/ COLLEGE| SHAH ALAM| QUESTION NO. | 2| FOR iLQAM USE ONLY FOR iLQAM USE ONLY DATE RECEIVED: TOTAL MARKS: STAMP: DATE RECEIVED: TOTAL MARKS: STAMP: NUR AZIEMAH MOHD AZMAN BASIC TEACHING & LEARNING COURSE 19 – 23 FEBRUARY 2013 (CENTRAL ZONE) UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA (UiTM) ASSIGNMENT 1 – QUESTION 2â€Å"Learning is not a spectator sport.Students do not learn much just sitting in classes listening to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past experiences, and apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves. † Explain how you will conceptualise this principle in your classroom? | There is a saying that goes: â€Å"Give a man a fish; you’ll feed him for a day. Teach a man how to fish; you’ll feed him for a lifetime. † As an educator, I hold on firmly to saying above.When I first started teaching, I told myself that I can either be a teacher who is only concerned about what need to be taught or I can be a teacher who is concerned about what and how something is supposed to be taught. I chose the latter. Why? Students had spent more than 12 years of learning in schools where most of the time, they sit and listen to what the teacher is teaching. Little or less participation on their behalf is incorporated during those 12 years. The main objective is to pass 3 ‘big and important’ examinations in 12 years.Sad to say, they soon forget a big chunk of what they had been learning for the past 12 years immediately after they finish their last paper for SPM. This is because students are only made to remember what they are taught; not to retain them. You can remember information for a specific length of time before you forget about it; but if you can retain that information, you’ll remember it forever. Let’s take mathematic as an example. We were taught how to do simple calculations such as addition since we were 6 years old. We not only learn how to add numbers in class, we also use it in our daily lives too.In a much simple terms, we practice what we learn in school and incorporate it into our daily lives. We retain the skills to do additions by doing and practicing. What about additional mathematics? Frankly speaking, if I was given a set of additional mathematics questions today, I would not be able to solve even the simplest question. Why? Because I did not use any of the formulas I was taught in school in my daily lives. I did not retain the information. Students are unique. They might not have the same way of learning.Lecturers and educators must be aware of their student’s ability in order to make the teaching and learning process a success. â€Å"Students have different levels of motivation, different attitudes about teaching and learning, and different responses to specific classroom environments and instructional practices. † (Brent and Felder, 2005) That is why, students learn best when they are incorporated and is actively involved during the learning process. The traditional method of teaching is more concerned on what the student should learn rather than how the student should be learning.In my class, I use Problem Based Learning (PBL) method. PBL is a new method of learning where there is a balance between what the students should learn and how they should be learning. â€Å"This new approach to learning is bringing about new ways in which students are involved in the learning process. Teachers know that students do not learn at their highest potential when they are in a classroom where the teacher stands at the front of the room and gives them knowledge. † (Utecht, 2003) During class, I e ncourage my students to speak and share information that they have on the topic.Before I start my lecture, I would first brainstorm the idea of the topic with my students. Initially, students would be reluctant to participate because they are afraid of saying the wrong answer. I encourage them saying that â€Å"if it is an opinion, there is no right or wrong answer†. Students in universities are andragogy learners; they are adult learners. As an adult, they would like to have more control of their own learning. â€Å"Andragogy reorients adult educators from educating people to helping them learn.The methods used may range from isolated instruction within a curriculum or integrated instruction. It may also encompass intentional and unintentional learning situations. † (Crawford, 2004) This type of students would be more interested to learn if they are given more power and control in the learning process. There are six assumptions on andragogy learners: 1. Adults need to know the reason for learning something (Need to Know) 2. Experience  (including  error) provides the basis for learning activities (Foundation). 3.Adults need to be responsible for their decisions on education; involvement in the  planning  and  evaluation  of their instruction (Self-concept). 4. Adults are most interested in learning subjects having immediate  relevance  to their work and/or personal lives (Readiness). 5. Adult learning is  problem-centred rather than content-oriented (Orientation). 6. Adults respond better to internal versus external motivators (Motivation). (Malcom Knowles, 1977) I planned and carry out my teaching and learning process using the 6 assumptions as my main guidance.Most of the time during class, I allow my students to voice out their opinion and share what they have to say on certain topics. I also let them know the objective of the learning and what they will acquire at the end of the class. If they feel that they did not achieve what they should at the end of the lesson, I encourage them to share their problems with their classmates so that they can come up with the solutions together. During my lecturer, I use simple examples which they can easily connect with in their daily lives. I usually share my experience and ask them to share theirs with the class.It takes the seriousness out of the learning process and students felt more comfortable sharing their problems and experience. For me, a relaxed and simple learning environment will encourage the students to be more active and not be reluctant to join in the discussions. A rigid classroom will make the students as cold as ice. Before I started teaching, I told myself to be the teacher that u have never had; the teacher I want to have but did not. I want my students to them around me and to not be ashamed to tell what they have in mind, because I believe the most valuable knowledge is the knowledge that we shared.References Brent. R, & Felder M. R. (2005). Understanding students’ differences. Journal of Engineering Education, 94(1), 57-72 Crawford S. R (2004). Andragogy – Malcolm Knowles. Retrieved March 21 from http://academic. regis. edu/ed205/Knowles. pdf Knowles, M. S. (1973). The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. Houston:  Gulf Publishing Company. Utecht R. J. (2003). Problem Based Learning in Student Centred Classroom. Retrieved March 21 from http://www. jeffutecht. com/docs/PBL. pdf

The Educational Theory of Lev Vygotsky Essay Example

The Educational Theory of Lev Vygotsky Essay Example The Educational Theory of Lev Vygotsky Paper The Educational Theory of Lev Vygotsky Paper Born in Czarist Russia in 1896, Lev Vygotsky lived a relatively short life, dying of tuberculosis in 1934. Because he was Jewish, the law limited his higher education options. He was, however, one of the 5% maximum of Jews permitted admission to a university. He was, however, not permitted to fulfill his ambition to pursue training as a teacher. In consequence, between the years of 1913 and 1917, Vygotsky studied medicine, philosophy, history, and law. [1] Vygotsky began teaching in his home city almost immediately after the 1917 Communist Revolution. However, he was disappointed if he anticipated that this upheaval would result in greater overall freedom. The ascension of Joseph Stalin to power in 1922 meant that all of Vygotskys scholarly work was to be accomplished in an ever more repressive police state. Vygotskys investigations of child development and educational psychology were influenced by his own Marxism – a philosophy that emphasizes the importance of ones social origins and place in the scheme of production. [2] Vygotskys works, consisting of more than one hundred books and articles, were not published until after his death in 1934. Just two years later they were suppressed. This suppression endured for two decades during which time his works were held in a secret library that could only be accessed by permission of the Peoples Commissariat for Internal Affairs - commonly known as the NKVD. [3] Despite this prolonged attempt to suppress his ideas, Vygotskys work survived and, particularly after the Cold War, came to wield considerable influence in the field of educational psychology. [4] I. Theory of Value: What knowledge and skills are worthwhile learning? What are the goals of education? Vygotskys stresses the importance of looking at each child as an individual who learns distinctively. Consequently, the knowledge and skills that are worthwhile learning varies with the individual. The overall goal of education according to Vygotsky is to generate and lead development which is the result of social learning through internalization of culture and social relationships. [5] He repeatedly stressed the importance of past experiences and prior knowledge in making sense of new situations or present experiences. Therefore, all new knowledge and newly introduced skills are greatly influenced by each students culture, especially their family environment. Language skills are particularly critical for creating meaning and linking new ideas to past experiences and prior knowledge. According to Vygotsky, internalized skills or psychological tools are used to gain mastery over ones own behavior and cognition. [7] Primary among these tools is the development of speech and its relation to thought. [8] Vygotsky maintained that language plays a central role in cognitive development. He argued that language was the tool for determining the ways a child learns how to think. That is because complex concepts are conveyed to the child through words. Learning, according to Vygotsky, always involves some type of external experience being transformed into internal processes through the use of language. [9] It follows that speech and language are the primary tools used to communicate with others, promoting learning. Vygotsky promoted the development of higher level thinking and problem solving in education. If situations are designed to have students utilize critical thinking skills, their thought processes are being challenged and new knowledge gained. [10] The knowledge achieved through experience also serves as a foundation for the behaviors of every individual. [11] II. Theory of Knowledge: What is knowledge? How is it different from belief? What is a mistake? A lie? According to Davydov and Kerr, it was a momentous occasion in the history of psychology when Vygotsky asserted specific functions are not given to a person at birth but are only provided as cultural and social patterns. [12] Vygotsky saw intellectual abilities as being much more specific to the culture in which the child was reared. [13] Through observation and study Vygotsky came to understand that people adapted to their surrounding environment based on their interpretations and individual perceptions of it. [14] Thus, humans are not born with knowledge nor is knowledge independent of social context. Rather, one gains knowledge as one develops by way of social interactions with peers and adults. Vygotsky does not make as drastic a distinction between knowledge and belief as some other heorists do. For him, knowledge is obtained through past experiences, social situations, as well as ones general environment. In similar manner, beliefs are instilled into an individual via culture and parental upbringing. Mistakes are crucial in Vygotskys theory of learning. In the course of development, mistakes are made during the process of concept formation. They are important in that they impact future learning. [15] From Vygotskys perspective, A concept emerges and takes shape in the course of a complex interaction aimed at the solution of a problem [A] concept is n active part of the intellectual process. [16] We see, then that, for Vygotsky, concept formation is a dynamic, ever-changing activity during which the child relies on their own perception to make sense of objects that appear to them to be unrelated the child creates his or her own subjective relationships between objects and then mistakes his or her egocentric perspective for reality. [17] This stage of development is known, paradoxically, as incoherent coherence. [18] During this stage, the making of mistakes is an integral part of a childs development. Also at this time, the childs organization schema becomes less egocentric and begin to incorporate additional information gained from experience into his or her thought processes. [19] In this way, mistakes can be corrected and new knowledge gained. Therefore mistakes are developmentally necessary, resulting from the role of social interaction in transformation of prior knowledge. [20] Tentatively one might infer that Vygotsky would view a lie as something that occurs as a result of the desire to conform to social norms. For example one might feel one way but report a more socially acceptable reality. III. Theory of Human Nature: What is a human being? How does it differ from other species? What are the limits of human potential? According to Marxist theory, The essence of man is no abstraction inherent in each single individual. In its reality it is the ensemble of the social relations. [21] Vygotsky would agree that we develop as humans through the ways we interact with those around us. His view of human nature fits with his Marxist ideology. Human beings can only be understood within the context the time period and the part of the world in which they live. Human nature cannot be understood as never-changing and universal, but as always depending on its specific social and historical formation. This principle does not leave out biological factors. [22] To be human, however, means that you have surpassed a level of functioning that your biological traits would otherwise dictate. [23] Although some animals have the ability to create and use material tools, humans have the ability to utilize psychological tools. In other words, human beings are differentiated by their ability to develop psychological tools that are used to gain mastery over ones own behavior and cognition[24] that other forms of life are not capable of developing. Some psychological tools include: language, different forms of numeration and counting, mnemotechniques, algebraic symbolism, works of art, writing, schemes, diagrams, maps, blueprints, etc. [25] In his theories, Vygotsky placed great emphasis on the importance of spoken language, arguably the most critical tool that sets us apart from other species. He asserts that speech is a very powerful psychological tool that lays the foundation for basic structures of thinking later in ones development. [26] Vygotsky further explains that speech is the first psychological tool used by children to communicate with others who share the environment. Naturally, this is continued through adulthood, as speech is a primary tool used for learning. Vygotsky insists that humans learn best in cooperation with other humans. [27] Vygotsky contended that, unlike animals who react only to the environment, humans have the capacity to alter the environment for their own purposes. It is this adaptive capacity that distinguishes humans from lower forms of life. The animal can only be trained. It can only acquire new habits. It can through exercises and combinations perfect its intellect, but is not capable of mental development through instruction in the real sense of the word. [28] Vygotskys concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) posits that human potential is theoretically limitless; but the practical limits of human potential depend upon quality social interactions and residential environment. This zone of proximal development is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. [29] In theory, then, so long as a person has access to a more capable peer, any problem can be solved. IV. Theory of Learning: What is learning? How are skills and knowledge acquired? According to Piaget, learning is what results from both mental and physical maturation plus experience. 30] That is, development preceded learning. In contrast Vygotsky observed that learning processes lead development. [31] Vygotsky maintained that learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human, psychological functions. [32] In other words, learning is what leads to the development of higher order thinking. According to Vygotsky the two primary means of learning occur through social interaction and language. Language greatly enhances humans ability to engage in social interactions and share their experiences. The most important fact uncovered through the study of thought and speech is that their relationship undergoes many changes. [33] Initially, a childs new knowledge is interpsychological, meaning it is learned through interaction with others, on the social level. [34] Later, this same knowledge becomes intrapsychological, meaning inside the child, and the new knowledge or skill is mastered on an individual level. [35] The previously mentioned idea of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) is central to Vygotskys view on how learning takes place. He described this zone as, the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. [36] Vygotsky maintained that learning occurs just above the students current level of competence. [37] It follows then, that the copying student will have a higher performance when working with a more capable student. The zone of proximal development works in conjunction with the use of scaffolding. Scaffolding is a six-step approach to assisting learning and development of individuals within their zone of proximal development. [38] Knowledge, skills and prior experiences, which come from an individuals general knowledge, create the foundation of scaffolding for potential development. At this stage, students interact with adults and/or peers to accomplish a task which could possibly not be completed independently. The use of language and shared experience is essential to successfully implementing scaffolding as a learning tool. 39] V. Theory of Transmission: Who is to teach? By what methods? What will the curriculum be? Vygotsky defined those who are to teach as the More Knowledgeable Other. The MKO is anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, particularly in regards to a specific task, concept or process. [40] Traditionally the MKO is thought of as a teacher or an older adult. However, this is not always the case. Other possibilities for the MKO could be a peer, sibling, a younger person, or even a computer. The key to MKO is that they must have more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does. [41] Teachers or more capable peers can raise the students competence through the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Vygotskys findings suggest methodological procedures for the classroom. In Vygotskian perspective, the ideal role of the teacher is that of providing scaffolding (collaborative dialogue) to assist students on tasks within their zones of proximal development. [42] During scaffolding the first step is to build interest and engage the learner. Once the learner is actively participating, the given task should be simplified by breaking it into smaller subtasks. During this task, the teacher needs to keep the learner focused, while concentrating on the most important ideas of the assignment. One of the most integral steps in scaffolding consists of keeping the learner from becoming frustrated. The final task associated with scaffolding involves the teacher modeling possible ways of completing tasks, which the learner can then imitate and eventually internalize. Vygotsky recommended a social context wherein a more competent learner would be paired with a less competent one, so that the former can elevate the latters competence. This social context promotes sustained achievement and cognitive growth for less competent students. [44] Accordingly, students need to work together to construct their learning, teach each other so to speak, in a socio-cultural environment. In-class opportunities for collaboration on difficult problem-solving tasks will offer support to students who are struggling with the material. By interacting with more capable students who continue to mediate transactions between the struggling students and the content, all students will benefit. [45] The implications of Vygotskys theories and observations for educators are several and significant. In Vygotskys view, the teacher has the collaborative task of guiding and directing the childs activity. [46] Children can then solve novel problems on the basis of a model he [sic] has been shown in class. [47] In other words, children learn by solving problems with the help of the teacher, who models processes for them and his or her eers, in a classroom environment that is directed by the teacher. In essence, the child imitates the teacher through a process of re-creating previous classroom collaboration. [48] It is important to note that the teacher does not control the class with rule and structure; rather, the teacher collaborates with the students and provides support and direction. [49] Assignments and activities that can be accurately completed by a student without assistance, indicate that the student has previously mastered the necessary prior knowledge. In the majority of classrooms this would be the conclusion of a unit; however, this is Vygotskys entry point. However, as previously mentioned, the teacher must carefully group the student that can potentially develop in collaboration with a more capable person. [50] In our research, we found limited references to Vygotskys specific views on curriculum content. One exception involves the teaching of writing to preschoolers. According to Garton and Pratt, Vygotsky argued for shifting the teaching of writing to preschool. They explain that Vygotsky differentiated between two forms of speech: spoken and written. Vygotsky, as cited by Garton and Pratt, asserts that a child develops an understanding that spoken speech can be symbolized in writing by progressing from drawing things to drawing speech. [51] Vygotsky suggested then that the preschool curriculum should be designed so that it was organized to ease childs transition from drawing things to drawing speech. [52] Learning to master tools and technologies should also be included in the curriculum. Students should be taught how to use tools such as the computer, resource books, and graphs in order to better utilize these tools in the future. [53] In this way, students will benefit as these tools and technologies influence the individuals thinking (along with the development of language). [54] In sum, Vygotskys findings suggest that the curriculum should generally challenge and stretch learners competence. [55] The curriculum should provide many opportunities to apply previous skills, knowledge and experiences, with authentic activities connected to real-life environment. [56] Since children learn much through interaction, curricula should be designed to emphasize interaction between learners and learning tasks. [57] VI. Theory of Society: What is society? What institutions are involved in the educational process? According to Vygotsky, society is the bearer of the cultural heritage without which the development of mind is impossible. [58] This society allows the learner to develop cognitively through social interactions. As a result, the use of language makes it possible for a child to communicate and share the environment from within their society. Every function in the childs cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). [59] Perhaps Vygotsky was comfortable generalizing about society in this way because he was living in post-revolutionary times. The revolution had been accomplished in Russia, and the New Soviet Man, was emerging in the Soviet Union, and the dictatorship of the proletariat was at hand. So far as the institutions involved in the educational process are concerned, Moll reports that Vygotsky considered school the best laboratory of human psychology. [60] He noted: At first glace, it may be easily seen that no special educational environment is needed, that education may be accomplished in any environment whatsoever. It is not very hard to conclude that no sort of artificial educational environment has to be created, that life educates better than any school. This view is wrong, however. [61] For Vygotsky, society (and therefore social interaction) happens in schools. Schools are incorporated into the larger society and have that as their context, so that some of their activity settings are determined by this larger contextuality. [62] For Vygotsky the classroom is also a social organization that is representative of the larger social community it is the social organization that is the agent for change in the individual. [63] Fhis statement was not meant to imply that informal education was not important. [64] Rather, as we stated before, for Vygotsky informal education is used by children through speech and language to develop higher mental functions. He stressed that childrens learning begins long before they attend school. Any learning a child encounters in school always has a previous history. [65] VII. Theory of Opportunity: Who is to be educated? Who is to be schooled? Vygotsky repeatedly asserts that it is within the social environment that learning takes place. Since no individual is able to escape their social surroundings, all within a society are inadvertently being educated.

A basic income grant for Namibia Essays

A basic income grant for Namibia Essays A basic income grant for Namibia Essay A basic income grant for Namibia Essay Introduction Nowadays, many people involved in the development discourse agree that the overcoming of poorness is the most important factor of development and that the growing of a state s economic system entirely is non sufficient to increase the wellbeing of the hapless frequently it has even worsen their state of affairs ( Kingsbury et al. , 2008, pp.27-28, 152 ) . However, there is no consensus on how to turn to this multidimensional job and create permanent alteration. This essay focuses on the challenge of poorness, unemployment and income inequality in Namibia the state with the most unequal distribution of income in the universe. The biennial Basic Income Grant ( BIG ) pilot undertaking in the Otjivero-Omitara country that has started in January 2008 aims to turn to these jobs by redistributing money from the rich to the hapless. It is based on the thought that everybody should unconditionally have a monthly basic income. The end of the BIG pilot undertaking which is the first cosmopolitan cash-transfer pilot undertaking in the universe ( Haarmann et al. , 2009, p.13 ) is to carry the Namibian authorities to implement a BIG in whole Namibia. Even if poorness is today frequently seen as cardinal factor which has to be addressed by development attacks and most would hold that development means bettering the life conditions of society , there has been and there are assorted sentiments of how this betterment should look like and how it can be achieved ( Melkote and Steeves, 2001, p.34 ) . In scholarship and pattern, one can place three chief watercourses of positions on development: modernization or the dominant paradigm of development, critical positions, and release positions ( ibid. ) . The different implicit in thoughts and constructs of development of these positions are explained in the undermentioned literature reappraisal of this essay. In the position study, the development state of affairs in Namibia and the BIG thought together with the associated pilot undertaking are described. The construct of authorization that emerged in the range of the critical attacks and release positions can be seen as the model of the BIG undertaking. The underlying thoughts, the strengths in turn toing poorness and permanent development every bit good as the challenges and unfavorable judgment of the undertaking are discussed in the treatment portion. Reasoning the analysis, actions for a successful execution of the BIG in whole Namibia are recommended. Literature Review The paradigm of modernization that emerged in the 1940s strongly determined the theory and pattern of development until the sixtiess ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, pp.71-72 ; Mowlana A ; Wilson, 1990, p.13 ) . Theories and constructs that recapitulated the development of West European and North American states were used to bring forth theoretical accounts of development for the Third World ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, p.100 ) . Roger names four cardinal elements of this so called dominant paradigm: economic growing via industrialization, capital-intensive engineering and associated the quantitative empirical scientific method, centralised planning every bit good as the belief that underdevelopment is caused by jobs within developing states ( 1976, p.49 ) . The paradigm is based on neo-classical economic theory but besides on societal evolutionary theory Darwin s evolutionary construct applied to societal alteration ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, pp.74-75 ) . There were and are, for illustration, a assortment of bipolar theories of modernization that describe ideal-typical beginning and stop points of development. The states in the Third World were seen as traditional societies while Western states were described as modern and hence holding already achieved the highest phase of development ( Greig, Hulme A ; Turner, 2007, p.80 ; Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, pp.81, 100 ) . A outstanding illustration of a unilinear modernization theoretical account that emphasises evolutionary alteration is Rostow s five-stage theoretical account of economic growing ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, p.84 ; Servaes, 1999, p. 21 ) . Modernization theories that focused alternatively on evolutionary alteration at the micro degree stated that is is indispensable f or the modernization procedure that persons change their values and attitudes to run into the features of people in the already modernised West ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, pp.86-88 ) . The procedures and constructions of development under the dominant paradigm reshaped the world of people in the Third World ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, p.92 ) . Melkote and Steeves note that an scrutiny of modernisation discourse from the beginning reveals the end of replacing non-Western ideological, cultural, and even linguistic communication systems, with Western systems ( 2001, p.92 ; see besides Kingsbury et al. , 2008, p.52 ) . In add-on, Western states gained more and more control over the people in the Third World through their institutional intercessions ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, p.93 ) . Since the 1960s the development construct within the range of the dominant paradigm has been more and more challenged ( Kingsbury et al. , 2008, p.51 ) . The review refers to several aspects and effects of the paradigm many of it challenges the focal point on a state s economic growing ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, pp.19, 158 ) . The assorted negative effects of the dominant paradigm show that measures like the GDP of a state can non state a batch about the state of affairs of the people. Even though many developing states experienced impressive economic growing until the sixtiess, the modernization theoretical account lead to increased rates of unemployment, poorness and inequality in political, societal and economic regard every bit good as in respect to the distribution of power ( Kingsbury et al. , 2008, p.27-28 ; Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, pp.158-162 ) . The observation of the failure of the dominant paradigm s trickle-down thought lead to the outgrowth of the basic needs attack in the early 1970s ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, p.166 ) . The purpose of this attack is to extinguish some of the worst facets of poorness by paying attending to the quality of life of persons at the underside of the socio-economic ladder alternatively of underscoring economic indexs as within the dominant paradigm ( ibid. , pp.158, 166 ) . There have been many attempts to specify basic demands ( Kingsbury et al. , 2008, p.32 ) . Paul Streeten ( 1979, p. 48, quoted in Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, p.167 ) identified seven aims of the basic needs attack that include basic human demands and rights: nutrient and imbibing H2O, shelter, instruction, security of support, conveyance, engagement in decision-making every bit good as self-respect and dignity. After a decennary of repudiation of the accent on basic demands, the attending to this attack returned in the 1990s. In this clip, a presents still really influential step of the wellbeing of people the Human Development Index ( HDI ) of the UNDP was introduced ( Kingsbury et al. , 2008, pp.32-33 ) . Melkote and Steeves province that the basic needs attack has no opportunity to hold a existent consequence on development every bit long as the power lies with the advocates of the neo-classical attack: Considerations of national and planetary security and economic sciences will ever take precedence ( 2001, p.169 ) . Critics have argued moreover that the existent purpose of advocates of the basic demands attack was to maintain people disempowered while merely feeding them better ( ibid. , p.168 ) . These concerns about planetary power instabilities are expressed, for illustration, by dependence theory and world-systems theory ( ibid. , p.158 ) . Melkote A ; Steeves summarise the new ends that alternative attacks to development reference: equity in distribution of development benefits, engagement of all community members, independency of communities or states and integrating of old and new thoughts ( 2001, p.199 ) . The 3rd watercourse of positions on development the release perspectives differs from the others since the focal point is religious and non economic ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, pp.35 ) . Spirituality and faith rarely play a function in mainstream development scholarship or pattern and faiths particularly others than Christianity are instead seen as barriers to development ( ibid. , pp.273-274 ) . However, within every major faith there can be found a type of divinity that supports development as a procedure of release from unfairness, favoritism, and subjugation ( ibid. , p.275, 293 ) . This release divinity, the chief footing for release positions, province that the purposes of development in this attack authorization and autonomy can merely be achieved through personal and communal release from subjugation ( ibid. , p.35 ) . The implicit in premises are that all people pursue freedom and autonomy and have the internal capacity to develop themselves on their ain footing s but internal and external signifiers of subjugation restrict their ability to make so ( ibid. , p.35, 294 ) . Crucial to liberation divinity is that religious pattern and societal activism together with and on behalf of laden people belong together ( ibid. , p.294 ) . Although big Western authoritiess and corporations are seen as a major subjugation beginnings, advocates of release positions are non automatically oppositions of modernization. Alternatively, the basic premiss is that persons must be free to take ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, p.35 ) . A bottom-up theoretical account that incorporates premises of the release perspectives is the participatory theoretical account for development. The thought behind this attack is the engagement of people of all degrees of society ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, p.327-338 ) . Peoples at the grassroots have to comprehend their demands and jobs themselves and so place solutions this happens through conscientization what includes corporate action. Though the participatory theoretical account has been comparatively popular in the last decennaries, many development undertakings have stayed far off from true engagement by maintaining the pick for the right solutions and other power issues at the degree of national or international elites ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, p.338-339 ) . The three watercourses of positions within the development discourse that were discussed in the preceding paragraphs are non thorough and they besides overlap. A construct of development that includes elements of the critical positions and release positions is empowerment ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, p.35-36 ) . The World Bank defines authorization as the procedure of increasing the assets and capablenesss of persons or groups to do purposive picks and to transform those picks into coveted actions and results. Empowered people have freedom of pick and action. This in bend enables them to better act upon the class of their lives and the determinations which affect them ( 2009a ) . Melkote and Steeves besides concentrate on the corporate degree of authorization and argue for this construct of development because sustainable alteration is non possible unless we deal with this important job in human societies: deficiency of economic and societal power among persons at the grassroots the oppressive societal, political, and economic constructions in Third World states are seen as the obstructions for development ( 2001, p.356 ) . Though there are several cautions that are discussed in the treatment portion of this essay, Melkote and Steeves see the authorization construct as the lone manner for true development ( 2001, pp.364-365 ) . Status Report The Republic of Namibia lies in the south-west of the African continent. With 2.11 million occupants in 2008 and a surface country of over 824,000 square kilometers, it is sparsely populated ( The World Bank TWB ] , 2009b ) . The bulk of the Namibians still live in rural countries while the urban population counts merely for 36 per cent ( TWB, 2008 ) . In 2008, the state had a GDP of US $ 8.56 billion ( TWB, 2009b ) and it has compared to neighbor states a comparatively high per capita income ( International Monetary Fund [ IMF ] , 2009, pp.5-6 ) . The economic system as a whole has shown a solid growing public presentation in recent old ages due to the booming mineral sector ( IMF, 2009, pp.5-6 ) . But the big portion of unemployed occupants about 35 per cent reveals the cardinal job of inequality in Namibian society ( ibid. ) . With a Gini value of 74.3, Namibia is regarded as the state with the most unequal distribution of income in the universe. The absolute monthly income of the richest 20 per centum of the population is 56.1 times higher than the income of the poorest 20 per centum ( UNDP, 2008b ) . Harmonizing to the national poorness line, 13.8 per cent of the people are badly hapless ( Haarmann et al. , 2009, pp.48-49 ) . With a HDI of 0.650, Namibia ranges in the bottom 3rd ( rank of 125th ) of 177 states when it comes to human wellbeing ( UNDP, 2008a ) . Using the weight for age criterion of the World Health Organization, 18 per cent of the kids under age 5 were undernourished in 2007. Merely 77 per cent of the kids in the relevant age group completed primary school in 2007. Another challenge is that the HIV rate is high in Namibia: 15.3 per cent of the population ages 15-49 are infected by the virus ( TWB, 2009b ) . In 2004, the so called Namibian Basic Income Grant Coalition ( BIG Coalition ) was established to recommend the debut of a countrywide monthly basic income grant ( BIG ) to turn to these jobs ( Haarmann et al. , 2009, p.13 ) . The Namibian Government s Tax Commission had recommended in 2002 a cosmopolitan grant that should be financed out of a progressive outgo revenue enhancement on the flush ( ibid. , p.18 ) . Following this recommendation, the BIG Coalition developed a proposal for a BIG in Namibia: A monthly hard currency grant of non less than 100 Namibian dollars ( what presently equals 15.64 Australian dollars ) should be paid unconditionally to every Namibian citizen adult females, work forces and kids as a citizen s right until she or he reaches the age of 60. When turning 60, Namibians become eligible for the already bing and well higher cosmopolitan authorities pension ( ibid. , pp.18-19 ; Kameeta et al. , 2007, p.23 ) . The BIG Coalition argues that the net costs of between N $ 1.2 and 1.6 billion per twelvemonth which are tantamount to 2.2 to 3 per cent of the current Namibian GDP are low-cost for the Namibian province as there is extra capacity to raise revenue enhancement gross significantly . Options to finance a BIG include a moderate accommodation of VAT combined with an addition in income revenue enhancements and a re-prioritisation of the national budget and the debut of a particular levy on natural resources ( Haarmann et al. , 2009, p.16 ) . The cardinal consequence that is expected from the BIG is that it promotes employment and nice work on a big graduated table in Namibia ( Kameeta et al. , 2007, p.25 ) . This would be achieved by the BIG by supplying a certain degree of income security that would control low mass poorness and interrupt the destructive circle of the survival economic system . The 2nd chief characteristic is that fiscal resources would be redistributed to the bulk of people where they are most effectual to further both investing and demand ( ibid. , pp.25-26 ) . The advocates of the undertaking note that several significant governmental steps are to boot needed as the BIG entirely can non be the solution for the job of mass unemployment ( ibid. , p.26 ) . The BIG Coalition decided in 2007 to implement a pilot undertaking in the highly hapless Otjivero-Omitara country ( Haarmann et al. , 2009, p.49 ) to turn out the positive effects of a BIG and travel the policy argument forward ( ibid. , p.19 ) . After the enrollment of the 930 under-60-year-old occupants of the country and the elevation of financess for a undertaking continuance of two old ages, the pilot undertaking has started in January 2008. The pay-out is managed by the Namibian Post Office where every occupant of the undertaking country has a savings history into which the grant is paid monthly ( ibid. , pp.19-23 ) . The advocates of the income grant province that the debut of the BIG will be a important measure towards poorness relief, employment creative activity and the decrease of inequality in Namibia ( Kameeta et al. , 2007, p.26 ) . In fact, harmonizing to the one-year-report of the pilot undertaking, assorted developmental effects have been achieved since the execution of the BIG in the undertaking country: family poorness dropped significantly, economic activity increased particularly through the starting of little concerns and the creative activity of a local market through the new purchasing power of the people, child malnutrition was reduced, regular school attending and clinic visits increased chiefly because of the ability to pay the fees, offense was significantly reduced and HIV positive occupants could afford nutrious nutrient that is indispensable to profit to the full from anti-retroviral intervention every bit good as wage for the conveyance to acquire the medicine ( Haarm ann et al. , 2009, p.14-16, 60 ) . Discussion The BIG Coalition sees the BIG non merely as a basic needs attack but as a agency of authorization. The BIG helps the hapless to fulfill basic demands like feeding, imbibing, holding nice shelter and directing their kids to school ( Streeten, 1979, p.48, quoted in Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, p.167 ) but it intends to accomplish even more than that. The advocates province that the BIG is non a public assistance programme but an empowerment programme for economic activity ( Kameeta et al. , 2007, p.23 ) . Kameeta et Al. argue in their BIG undertaking presentation for the United Nations in line with the thoughts of the empowerment construct of Melkote and Steeves that was explained before in this essay: Poverty is caused by an unfair economic order that prevents them [ the hapless ] from doing a life in a dignified manner. A solution must therefore turn to the structural unfairnesss, which perpetuate the ever-increasing unemployment and poorness rates ( 2007, p.12 ) . As the BIG wou ld ease a redistribution of income from the rich to the hapless, it would take to more justness in the distribution of the wagess of economic growing that Namibia so experienced since independency ( Kameeta et al. , 2007, p.20 ) . That the battle of many Namibians to run into basic demands prevents development is noted strikingly by Kameeta et Al. : The hapless have to pass hours procuring their endurance for the following twenty-four hours by roll uping H2O and firewood and seeking to obtain some nutrient. These day-to-day endurance struggles absorb clip, labor and other resources, which otherwise could be used for productive economic intents ( 2007, p.8 ) . In advanced states the province normally guarantees some sort of societal safety cyberspace but as this is missing in many developing states it is irrational for people to prosecute in advanced, achievement-oriented and profit-maximising behaviour ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, p.166 ) . The abandoning of the survival economic system furthers the chances of the hapless to prosecute in work either by get downing an ain concern or seeking other employment. Criticism of the BIG construct chiefly takes topographic point on an ideological degree and reminds of the position of the dominant paradigm: The two nucleus beliefs are that a hard currency transportation is bad for people because it gives them rights without duty and that hapless people are non capable of passing the money sagely ( Haarmann et al. , 2009, p.39 ) . Melkote and Steeves confirm that while expressed theories of single lower status are no longer promoted, the discourse of development frequently reveals ethnocentric and patriarchal beliefs about the disempowered position of people in general or subgroups in developing states ( 2001, p.90 ) . The BIG Coalition states that the consequences of the pilot undertaking prove that the ideological reserves which critics like many affluent white husbandmans have ( Krahe, 2009, pp.48-49 ) are baseless. The people in the undertaking country have in fact made rational disbursement determinations to better their lives ( Haarmann et al. , 2009, p.40 ) . Furthermore the BIG Coalition argues that the unconditioned payments do non intend giving something for nil but lead to immense single and societal benefits through giving people the chance to go autonomous and act dignified and responsible ( ibid. , pp.39-42 ) . Simply the ownership of small economic power helps people to recover their human self-respect, for illustration because they do non hold to implore for nutrient any more ( Haarmann et al. , 2009, p.41 ) . This procedure is furthered by the unconditioned payment of the BIG. The receiving systems of the BIG have the pick to make up ones mind how to put their money and are responsible for their actions, they have the power to make what seems sensible for them. This would be non the instance if nutrient casts would be provided or the school fees for their kids would be paid from person else than themselves ( ibid. ) . The statement that a BIG would make dependence is contrary to the basic premise of release position which is important to the authorization construct: It is necessary to swear in the laden and in their ability to ground ( Freire, 1996, p.564 ) . As the experience in the pilot undertaking shows, the people use the BIG as a platform for ain actions and do non trust on the r egular payment entirely. Krahe points out that the system of little loans in developing states besides shows that hapless people frequently win in going financially independent in this instance through self-employment if they merely acquire entree to money ( 2009, p.52 ) . The BIG has promoted in the pilot undertaking community besides empowerment through engagement. The people themselves established an 18-member BIG commission to call up the community. The commission elected people who advise others to do the best usage of their Large payments ( Haarmann et al. , 2009, p.14 ) . The members besides addressed the job of intoxicant maltreatment and persuaded shebeen proprietors non to open on the BIG pay-out yearss ( ibid. , pp.38-39 ) . This suggests that the debut of a BIG can efficaciously help with community mobilization and authorization ( ibid. , p.14 ) . Peoples know best the jobs of their community and can make solutions in Otjivero-Omitara, the BIG ignited hope and motivated people to take part in their ain development ( ibid. , p.37 ) . A participatory communicating theoretical account is seen as cardinal for authorization ( Cadiz, 2005 ; Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, p.166 ) . It would travel beyond the range of this essay to analyze the BIG proposal in such inside informations as discoursing for illustration the appropriate hight of the monthly grant and the best manner to finance it. As noted in the position study, the pilot undertaking shows many positive consequences in turn toing poorness, unemployment and other jobs. The BIG is besides a manner to decrease the economic inequality in a state in which merely a certain portion of people used to profit from economic growing. After analyzing the underlying construct of authorization, one can state that the BIG appears to be a really fruitful construct of development as it is a existent means to authorise people. However, it can merely be one of assorted stairss to derive full authorization of the people. Melkote and Steeves emphasise moreover that there are several cautions to empowerment: it is a long-run, labor-intensive procedure that evolves through pattern in which development support professionals a re merely facilitators ( 2001, pp.364-365 ) . In any instance, extra steps and procedures are needed to attach to the execution of a BIG in Namibia it is understood that the debut of a basic income can non stand entirely ( Hornemann Moller A ; Lind, 1999, p.186 ) . As the BIG Coalition itself states, governmental steps to turn to the mass employment are among others important to make positions and ease the long-run success of a basic income. Essential for farther authorization would be moreover that people at the grassroots organise themselves to back up other people in how to put the BIG money, detect and reference potentially approaching troubles and acquire involved with the betterment of life in their community beyond the basic income ( Melkote A ; Steeves, 2001, p.166, 366 ) . The constitution of a community commission within the BIG pilot undertaking is a good illustration for engagement. From the political side there should be attempts to listen to what the people at the grassroots have to state and what measures the y consider as reasonable for their particular community ( Servaes, 1999, pp.277, 279 ) . However, participatory communicating faces many obstructions and its success depends on several conditions it is nil that can be established easy over dark ( Cadiz, 2005, pp. 156-158 ; Servaes, 1999, pp.196-204, 277 ) . At the current degree of treatment, the argument about a BIG for Namibia is non yet concerned with such of import inside informations of the BIG debut, it is still a general and chiefly ideological one. Can you swear hapless people? Can you allow them make up ones mind what to make with the money they get? The authorization construct approves that and goes even farther by saying that to trust on the self-responsibility of the people, to authorise them to allow them make their ain hereafter is the lone manner to derive sustained development. Surely, there will ever be people who are non willing to take part in community development and maltreatment governmental payments but as the experience from the BIG pilot undertaking shows, this is the minority. A basic income grant can be a first measure towards the end of get the better ofing poorness and increasing the wellbeing of people through authorization. The thought of a basic income already has a long history, its roots stretch back to the late 18th century ( Fitzpatrick, 1999, p.40 ) . The BIG pilot undertaking in Namibia has gained big attending worldwide ( Haarmann et al. , 2009, p.XII ) particularly because other states, including for illustration Germany, are besides discoursing the debut of a basic income for some clip already ( Little, 1998, p.107 ) . Possibly in this instance a developing state will steal into the function of progress leading and go the precursor of a successful development construct that will be implemented in Western states later.

The Essential First Step When Writing a Proposal

The Essential First Step When Writing a Proposal One of the most vexing considerations when writing a proposal is deciding what information to include and what to omit. And, we need to tier information so it is relevant and compelling. Here is the honest answer to determining what information to include in your proposal, and where to place it:It depends. Every proposal requires different content, sequencing, and even tone, depending on audience needs. Therefore, we have to approach proposal writing with a logical, step-by-step process that is built on audience needs.That's why templates are useful in proposal writing, but never definitive, and can get you in trouble. The Essential First Step When Writing a Proposal There is a first step every proposal writer should begin with, when writing every proposal, to determine what to include and what to omit: analyze your audience carefully. In essence, at this first most important point in the proposal writing process, you need to figure out your audience. Everything else - content, solutions, product recommendations, tone, and even pricing and presentation - hangs fully on audience needs. Defining your audience is the critical stage in proposal writing. At this point, don't even think about your company's technical knowledge or unique solutions; that will come later. Don't muddy the waters yet. What to Include and What to Omit When Writing a Proposal Always start with considering your audience.. Get a clear idea of them in your head before you plan solutions or write anything. Ask yourself questions about your proposal readers: How much do they know about your company and your solutions? Are they resistant or open to change or new process? Have you worked with them before? Are they cheap or willing to spend money to get a good solution? What are their pain points? What is most important to them about their pain point or issues? What is less important to them, but perhaps still relevant? Are they interested? Or, are they disinterested? Is your working relationship established and easy, or established and being reviewed? Are they knowledgeable about your industry in general? Etc. The answers to these questions frame everything else about your proposal. You will match proposal content directly to the audience. Always. A very common proposal mistake is to write what you, as the proposal writer, think is important about your solution or product. That may or may not be your readers' primary interest. It's an easy trap to fall into because we all know our products and solutions so well. It's natural to write from our own perspective, especially when we enjoy our work, believe in our solutions, and are knowledgeable and passionate about our subject. But, you will likely fail to meet your readers' real needs if you don't first analyze your audience. We always want to provide content that is relevant to audience needs. We can't do that if we don't first figure out our audience's perspective, experience, challenges, and needs. Defining your audience when you start to write a proposal is the essential first step that will help you know what information to include and what to omit, and also tier its importance, in the proposal. Match the information directly to audience needs. Be certain your first step when writing a proposal is defining your audience. I like to simplify this into two steps: Who will actually be reading the proposal? What is their "deal?" (Are they interested? Disinterested? Reactive? Affable but unable to commit? Cheap? Willing to spend money for value? Knowledgeable about the industry and solution? Are the readers a committee? If so, what is the "deal" with the members of the committee?...) Wrestle with these questions until you clearly understand your readers. Once you have your readers clearly in your mind, you will easily be able to determine what content to include, or omit. And, you'll know much more easily where and how to present it. First Things First Skip this important first step and your content can't possibly match reader needs or determine what information is most important. And, the proposal will likely be unfocused and over or under weighted with solutions or present irrelevant information. If content is not matched to your readers' needs, you are unlikely to earn the business. You can't determine the right content if you don't first analyze your reader during this first essential step to writing a proposal. Ready to master proposal writing? Close more business by enrolling in our onlineProposal Course. Receive instruction, templates, and feedback on each incremental step of the proposal you write during the course. Additionally, the last lesson includes individual coaching on the strategy and writing of proposals you write at work and a detailed review of the proposal you write during the course. You will fully master proposal writing in this course. Or, download our free guide onHow to Write a Proposal.